The influence of language on cultural & ethnic group identification

Both race and language help in the formation and definition of one’s cultural and ethnic identity. Being born as a Mexican-American or a Chinese-American will undoubtedly play a role in shaping one’s identification with Mexican, Chinese, or any other culture or ethnicity. At the same time, the language one grows up speaking or chooses to learn in the future also has an impact on the individual’s recognition as belonging to some ethno-cultural group. This raises the question: does the racial group that one is born into have a greater impact on one’s identification or can one’s language provide an even greater influence on the individual’s affiliation with a cultural or ethnic group? I argue that instead of the person’s inherited phenotypes and being born as a certain race playing the key role; it is language that plays a significantly greater part in shaping the way a person chooses to identify with a specific culture or ethnicity.

Broad and Pervasive Effects of Language
Language is more than just a method of communication and it reflects and impacts both ethnic and cultural identity. Language can be used to express, “embody, and symbolize cultural reality” (Kramsch, 1998, p.3). Decisions about learning languages are influenced by wider concerns of self and other identification rather than simply being issues of instrumental need. In a study, Polish research participants viewed speaking Polish as an important part of being Polish, that is, of their identity. All participants talked about how important the Polish language was for them. Marek Zych, a recent migrant, spoke of language as a ‘foundation’; Pawel Kochanowski, who had been born in England to Polish parents, stated that the “Polish language was a part of who he is because he was brought up learning Polish” (Temple, 2010, p.6). Using the Polish language, being born in Poland, having Polish values, practicing Polish culture, religion and the emotional aspect of being Polish were all mentioned as important to Polish identity. Although speaking Polish was mentioned as one important part of being Polish, it also ran through the other aspects mentioned, for example, Polish values, Polish culture, religion and emotional attachment to Poland (Temple, 2010, p.5).The respondents recognized that changing the language they spoke involved questioning the way they presented themselves and how they related to others. They answered questions from a questionnaire revealing that “language is used to differentiate between ‘us’ and ‘others’, including in terms of values and the ways in which these perceptions of difference influence social interactions” (Temple, 2010, p.1). Learning a new language involves more than changing the words we use to communicate with others and many researchers have shown how the language we use is a part of who we are (Bourdieu, 1992; Pavlenko, 2005, 2006). The findings reported by the study indicate that Polish speakers recognized that learning English meant asking questions about the kinds of lives they wanted to live and the people they wanted to become (Temple, 2010, p.4). Learning a new language meant accepting change in themselves.
The language and dialect speakers use also provides cues that allow others to determine if speakers are members of an in-group or an out-group. Group identity is not a natural fact, but a cultural perception and our perception of someone’s ethnic identity is very much culturally and linguistically determined. What we perceive “about a person’s culture and language is what we have been conditioned by our own culture to see, and the stereotypical models already built around our own” (Kramsch, 1998, p.67). There is a natural connection between the language spoken by members of an ethnic group and that group’s identity. By their “accent, their vocabulary, their discourse patterns, speakers identify themselves and are identified as members of this or that speech and discourse community” (Kramsch, 1998, p.67).

Often it is assumed that one’s ethnicity is inherited; a person is Black or White, Anglophone or Francophone, Welsh or Irish by birth. However one’s ethnicity is a creative process such as in the Canadian context where an individual may describe him or herself as Canadian, Italian-Canadian, Italian, or Anglophone. All are “legitimate ethnicities and language clearly plays an active role in the creation of the particular identity desired” (Giles & Saint-Jacques 1979, p.232). Ethnicity does not occur in isolation from other elements of identity such as class and gender. Language must provide ways of reflecting and constructing the many facets of our identities and language itself has often served as the chief indicator of ethnicity. Language and ethnic identity are “related reciprocally, i.e. language usage influences the formation of ethnic identity, but ethnic identity also influences language attitudes and language usage” (Gudykunst, 1988, p.1). As stated by Gloria Anzaldua, “you are what you speak” and “ethnic identity is twin skin to linguistic identity- I am my language.” Learning language and communication and the impact of socialization and culture “provide a linguistic background with the power to form and shape personal identities and to provide evidence for others of the ethnic and cultural identities of the communicators” (Johnson, 2000, p.17). Research indicates that ethnic group members “identify more closely with those who share their language than with those who share their cultural background” (Gudykunst, 1988, p.1).

Influences Embedded in Language
There are specific ways in which language is used, either with the attitudes towards the language or vocabulary of the language, in order to greatly influence ethno-cultural identity. Similar to racial discrimination, certain attitudes towards languages make assumptions about the speakers’ identity and stereotype speakers based on their language. When a particular way of speaking triggers a stereotype that is then applied to the speaker, linguistic stereotyping results through a process whereby particular language characteristics evoke the stereotype, which is then applied full force to the speaker. When the linguistic attitude is negative, especially when it is acted on in some way, the situation is one of linguistic prejudice. There is probably no country or culture where some degree of linguistic prejudice does not exist and linguistic prejudice can intensify into linguistic intolerance. Such intolerance is one important factor underlying proposals to allow ‘English only’ in the workplace or to try to eradicate special teaching methods for non-English speakers. At its extreme, linguistic intolerance in some parts of the world has led to the banning of certain languages; for example, “when the Kurdish language was banned in 1990 from use in Iraq, Kurds who dared to speak Kurdish in public risked death” (Johnson 2000, p.16). Even the history of the United States shows government intolerance of Native American languages mirroring the kind of intolerance U.S. citizens usually assign only to others in the world.

Not only do external views play a role, but people’s perceptions of the values within their own language affect their cultural identification. In United States mainstream culture, the integrity of the individual and the right to privacy are highly valued and English has a variety of words for such beliefs like individualism, freedom, liberty, etc. This is not the case in every language and culture such as in Chinese culture, where “the language does not even contain words to name and describe the concepts of individuality and privacy” (Johnson 2000, p.55). The use of written language is also shaped and socialized through culture; not only what it is proper to write to whom in what circumstances, but also which text genres are appropriate (the application form, the business letter, the political pamphlet), because they are sanctioned by cultural conventions (Kramsch, 1998, p.6).The Chinese identify themselves ethnically as Chinese even though they speak languages or dialects which are mutually unintelligible. Despite the fact that a large number of Chinese don’t know how to read and write, it is the “Chinese character-writing system and the art of calligraphy that are key factors of an overall Chinese group identity” (Kramsch, 1998, p.69).

Differences in the Spanish and English languages construct different cultural worldviews for their speakers. The fact is that for Spanish, the past tense can be “constructed in many ways, contrasted to the future tense, which is seldom used; English syntax is the converse” (Johnson 2000, p.168). Hispanics arguably place a greater emphasis on history and memory because it is engrained in the language. Another example of the lexicon influence is in Welsh; some contend that the word for language in Welsh, Iaith, originally meant both language and nation (community) and that the word for ‘foreigner’ was Anghyfiath, literally ‘not of the same language (Giles & Saint-Jacques 1979, p.160).

Culture is embedded into languages in a way that affects people more than simply being born into the racial group. The discourse of African Americans maps the social circumstances of a people. A person that is African-American is very likely to index his or her ethnicity through language in some way, whether by using a particular dialect (or range of dialects), following certain norms for discourse (Fought, 2006, p. 20). From the slave trade through legal segregation in the South and de facto segregation in the North, through housing and employment discrimination that continues today, African Americans have lived separated, both literally and symbolically, from the majority white population of the United States. The circumstances of separation account for the prototypical barrier conditions that encourage distinctive language varieties and discourse patterns. The language and discourse patterns heard today carry with them many historical influences: “West and Central African languages and cultures native to slaves; the functional necessity for slaves to communicate in code so their masters would not understand what they meant; segregation in all its forms- education, housing, employment, entertainment, and recreation; and the legacy of racial prejudice” (Johnson 2000, p.144).
Another large group with which language plays an integral part is the Spanish language community. For the majority of Hispanics, the Spanish language runs deeply into cultural and personal identities. To relinquish Spanish “either literally or symbolically is to relinquish a significant and powerful dimension of personal and ethnic [identity]” (Johnson 2000, p.177). As John Attinasi (1979) discovered in his interview study with New York Puerto Ricans, proficiency in English does not replace the importance of Spanish because ‘Spanish [even limited usage] is the assumed basis of community interaction’ and serves to bind Puerto Rican culture” (Johnson 2000, p.177). Language has a significant role in this cultural self-orientation. For the respondents in a study of Indians in Britain, the two languages, English and Gujarati, would seem to symbolize membership of the Indian ethnic community and of the wider British society respectively. The likelihood of encountering a student who proudly considers him or herself Indian (rather than British) but who has no special interest in the perpetuation of the Gujarati language is low. The development of a British identity, on the other hand, seems to be associated with a relative disinterest in Gujarati (Giles & Saint-Jacques 1979, p.24). The individual’s perception of the importance of their native language is correlated with how strongly they culturally identify.

Certain linguistic resources often emerge as important in the construction and perception of cultural identity. There is a multitude of studies focusing on the role that a heritage language, a separate language tied to cultural identity, can play in defining a cultural group and in a sense of cultural pride. Speakers in Bailey’s study of Dominican-Americans, for example, articulate this concept explicitly, saying that ‘they SPEAK Spanish, so they ARE Spanish.’ In Hewitt’s (1986) study, use of Creole phonology by white speakers in South London was more likely to trigger a negative reaction from Afro-Caribbean peers than use of Creole grammar and lexicon, suggesting that specific linguistic features such as phonology can be seen in more proprietary terms as an index of cultural identity. Some features are so closely tied to cultural identity that a single use of that feature can serve to identify a speaker as belonging to a particular group; for example, “a listener in Urciuoli’s study identifies a speaker on a tape as black because he used habitual be” (Fought, 2006, p. 21). Speakers often also index multiple identities through their use of language, so that utterances reflect the nuances of identity in multilayered ways that cannot be broken down into smaller components. Hewitt (1986) found that young white speakers in South London would often use Creole grammatical forms, but with a standard phonology, deliberately indexing both their affiliation with their black friends and their own ethnic identity as members of an outside group. These illustrate the framework labeled ‘double-voiced discourse’ where a speaker’s utterances contain within themselves a ‘dialogue’ about identity” (Fought, 2006, p. 25). Thus language allows people listening to the speaker to differentiate certain cultural and ethnic identities from their use of the language whether it is their accent, grammar, vocabulary, or phonology.

Effects of Language within Racial Groups
The nature of language has an integral role in ethno-cultural identity and this role is powerful enough to affect people that are born into the very same racial group. Knowing a language or the lack of knowledge of a certain language can allow either acceptance or exile from an ethnic or cultural group even within the same race. Language has been used not only to mark off external boundaries but also these internal lines; not only to praise the in-group and isolate the out-group but also to single out renegades – those of the in-group who break cultural ranks to identify with out-groups. The labels used for “out-groups and for renegades often express a fear of contamination, a disavowal of those who desert or betray the in-group” (Giles & Saint-Jacques 1979, p.161). Not only does the in-group punish the linguistic renegade through labeling him an outsider, but it perhaps reserves its wrath to the in-group member who betrays what the group considers its fundamental way of life. Some of the most pejorative labels are manufactured to heap contempt on the betrayer of the in-group’s integrity and self-respect. Examples of such labels that warn against these outsiders are:
“Meshummed’ which is a Jewish convert to Christianity (the religion of those who had historically persecuted one’s ancestors), Yiddishe Goyim which is a Hasidic label for those born Jewish but who are not religiously observant (literally ‘Jewish Gentiles’), Apple Indian which denotes an American Indian who identifies with Whites (Red on the outside and white on the inside), Oreo Black which denotes an American Black who identifies with white people (like Oreo cookies that have cream filling and are black on the outside and white on the inside), and Uncle Tom/Uncle Tomahawk/Uncle Tomas which denotes a subservient Black/American Indian/or Mexican-American” (Giles & Saint-Jacques 1979, p.162).

Such ethno-linguistic labels are essentially prescriptions for interaction and rules for avoidance that highlight linguistic divisions within a group. In Hewitt’s study, the failure to use Creole is seen as having the power to classify someone as ‘not black’ (1986). An even more striking case of this transformative power of language occurs in a study by Sweetland (2002) where he looked at the case of a young European-American woman, ‘Delilah’ who grew up in a predominantly African-American area of Cincinnati, Ohio and who speaks African American Vernacular English as her primary linguistic code. Sweetland spoke with one of the African-American men in this woman’s peer group, asking him if the way Delilah spoke bothered him at all. He responded that it did not, and added, ‘Well, she basically black’ (Fought, 2006, p. 33). The young man knew the woman’s biographical identity as a European-American, but he felt that her cultural and linguistic attributes disqualified her from being white. In this case, we see the power of language to contribute to an individual’s cultural identity and the malleability of cultural identity because of language.

Another notable intra-group linguistic division lies within in the Philippines. The country recently proclaimed the national language of the Philippines (called Filipino by the nation’s government). Government officials decided to base the national language on Tagalog which caused uproar amongst other Filipinos, especially those in the Cebu province. The reason behind the resistance to this nationalist policy is because Cebuano is another popular language spoken mostly by people in the Cebu province of the Philippines and the decision to essentially make Tagalog the official language could mean the slow decline in the Cebuano language. The unique feature of Cebuano’s resistance to Tagalog as the national language of the Philippines is that language has become the symbolic form of resistance to Tagalog domination and imperialism on the part of Cebuanos” (Dow & Fishman, 1991, p.125). Even though the people of the Philippines all claim Filipino culture and pride, linguistic differences amongst Filipinos such as the Cebuano and Tagalog languages have caused people to identify through their language instead of their race. In spite of the political, economic, and cultural domination of Manila and the Tagalog region, by and large there has been no separatist movement because of language anywhere, not even in Cebu. In other words, people of Cebu have tied their identity to their language, without threatening secession. The plea made has been for “ethnic and cultural autonomy symbolized by language, not political autonomy realized by secession” (Dow & Fishman, 1991, p.125). Each of the languages carries so much culture behind it that the people culturally and ethnically identify through their native language.

Language plays a major role in both cultural and ethnic identity. Racial constructs may have been the basis for groups at certain times, but language can even divide people of the same race and powerfully shapes an individual’s identification. Both attitudes towards language and the very words that languages have greatly shape how its users affiliate themselves; these influences are cross-cultural and cross-generational and their pervasive presence within languages will continue to affect how people identify more so than race.

References
Dow, J. R, & Fishman, J. A. (1991). Language and ethnicity. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co.
Fought, C. (2006). Language and ethnicity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Giles, H., & Saint-Jacques, B. (1979). Language and ethnic relations. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Gudykunst, W. B. (1988). Language and ethnic identity. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Johnson, F. L. (2000). Speaking culturally : language diversity in the United States. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Kramsch, Claire. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford University Press, USA.
Temple, B. (2010). Feeling special: Language in the lives of Polish people. Sociological Review, 58(2), 286-304. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2010.01904.x

Access to Medical Care Hindered by Language Barriers

A recent case in Riverside CA in which patient, Francisco Torres, had the wrong kidney removed during surgery has invigorated a new look at the language barriers between patients and doctors and the increased likelihood of medical errors that can occur as a result. The fact that Mr. Torres was not provided a medical interpreter prior to surgery is concerning especially since he speaks one of the most common languages, Spanish.

Statistics have proven that language plays a major role in misdiagnosis or poor treatment in hospitals or delays in access to preventive care. Patients with limited English proficiency are almost twice as likely to suffer adverse events in United States hospitals resulting in harm or even death. There is a rising number of people that fit into this category and thus there is a need for a nationally recognized process for certifying medical interpreters, a requirement that only certified medical interpreters can be hired by healthcare organizations and national funding to help hospitals pay for these measures. In the meantime, there is a nationally available procedure to ensure that medical interpreters are adequately prepared for the field and needs of the patients. Titled the Certified Medical Interpreter program, it does just as the name suggests and helps to ensure the qualifications of these interpreters. However the lack of funding and reimbursement to hospitals that use such services continues to contribute to trends of healthcare disparities in lower income communities where such services are needed the most.

I agree with the position of the author and see this as a serious problem. Such little things could get lost in translation and the interpreters need to have the proper experience in order to best help communication between patients and doctors. However I do see the difficulty in getting funding for such programs and people may argue that patients with limited English proficiency should focus on improving their English instead of the government catering to them. Regardless, it is an issue that will continue to affect the medical field and the government will have to address the problem in order to avoid deaths due to miscommunication.

The article can be found here: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/louis-provenzano/language-access-and-the-p_b_587920.html

Animal Communication and the Roots of Language

In the search for the roots of language, there has been a large debate over the connection between animal communication and human language. Because language leaves little archaeological record, much of the debate has been talk and not enough actual testing. However the field is moving towards more empirical research and since 1996, a group meets at Evolang every 2 years to discuss the evolutionary origins of language. This new empiricism may help resolve one of the most popular language debates: whether the first human language consisted of articulated speech or gestures.

Past studies have been done on chimpanzees in order to see if they can learn human language. However results often show poor vocalization skills and much better control and complexity with gestures. A gestural theory of language origin has arisen and suggests that the first human language had gestures and articulated speech came later. Studies have also been done to examine the connection between gestures and speech and concluded there is a link because they share similar regions of the brain.

Another shift has been the study of birds instead of primates. Studying primates seemed reasonable since they are seen as the closest to the human species. However birds began to be studied for their vocal learning abilities that mirrors the language acquisition of humans. A songbird learns to sing essentially the same way a child learns to talk: from the parents. Other parallels have been found between bird song and human language and have brought researchers closer to understanding how they could possibly construct a brain that can do vocal learning.

Here's a link to the article: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/328/5981/969

Children Learning Languages in Math & Science Courses

A partnership between WRAL-TV and the George Lucas Educational Foundation called Project Education: Edutopia has pioneered a different method of foreign language learning in order for children to be able to compete in a global economy. Seattle students that attend John Stanford International School become immersed in either Spanish or Japanese instead of a class dedicated to either language. Students have the choice of which of these languages they want to learn and then spend half of the school day studying math and science in that language and the other half studying social studies and language arts in English.

The reason for having students immersed in the language when studying math and science as opposed to social studies where one might discuss culture is because those subjects are much more abstract. Math and science have more hands on activities and factual learning. Other educators have witnessed in awe at the school's ability to teach second language skills while also improving test scores; the international schools has one national awards and the success of the program has led to the creation of five other international schools including one that teaches Mandarin. Because it is an international school, the mix of languages helps level the playing field for those with English as a second language. All the students benefit from exposure to children of other cultures and everyone understands what it takes to learn a language which fosters greater appreciation within the school's community.

I think such a program is a brilliant idea and the success of it should urge other schools across the country to consider reforming foreign language learning. This school probably has many more resources than the average public school and sadly many schools would not have the money or qualified teaching staff in order to implement such a program. Hopefully the government will take note of such programs and seek to change the way languages are learned; these children feel more comfortable using the language and they are more likely to utilize it in the future. Most schools have a language requirement but a great number of students fulfill that requirement and lose their language abilities after a few years. This integration of language learning and conventional curriculum would probably lead to better retention of the language and more confidence using it in a real world setting.

The article can be found here: http://www.wral.com/news/edutopia/story/7611054/

Differences in Brain Language Circuits linked to Dyslexia

Children and adults diagnosed with dyslexia often struggle with writing, reading, and spelling despite the quality of their education. Researchers from Vanderbilt University Sheryl Rimrodt and Laurie Cutting have begun to understand some of the underlying reasons behind dyslexia. They discovered that people's difficulties with written language may be connected to structural differences in the brain that play a major role in oral language.

Using an emerging MRI technique called diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), these researchers searched for evidence linking structural differences in a crucial bundle of white matter in the left-hemisphere language network. White matter consists of fibers that allows brain cells to communicate between one another and the left-hemisphere language network is made up of bundles of white matter that extend from the back of the brain to frontal parts that are responsible for speech and articulation. Cutting makes the point that when someone reads written language, they are essentially saying the words out loud in their head and thus if the decreased integrity of white matter means that the front and back parts of the brain are not talking to one another. This communication is crucial because you need the visual (back part of brain) and oral (front) to act as a cohesive unit.

These researchers used DTI and found that white matter bundles in this network and less organized and oriented differently in the dyslexic brain. While this does not provide a full reason behind the basis of dyslexia, the discovery will prompt further research into the physical characteristics of the region and bring the field closer to finding out how dyslexia happens.

Article can be found here: http://news.oneindia.in/2010/05/11/differencesin-brains-language-circuits-linked-todyslexia.html

Fading English Proficiency for Filipinos

In the Philippines, the official language is technically called Filipino but most Filipinos simply call their language Tagalog (Filipino is based on Tagalog according to sources). Because of historical colonization of the country, the Philippines have many other languages that are commonly spoken including English, Spanish, and a wide variety of native dialects (such as Ilokano or Cebuano). Being the prominent world language that it is, English became widely popular in the Philippines and at one point ranked as an official language due to its usefulness in communicating with the world economy. However, Filipino businesses have noticed a trend in the decline of English proficient Filipinos; the offshore and outsourcing market, in particular, needs Filipinos that can speak English so they can work as call-center agents. Unfortunately employers in the industry say they have to deny 95 out of 100 applicants because their English proficiency does not meet the standards needed for the industry.

The economy of the Philippines creates so few jobs that one-tenth of the population work abroad. The institutionalization of Tagalog as the official language in the 1970s and the pride of the people caused Tagalog to become far more popular than English. Residents report that it is hard to find people under the age 40 who are comfortable speaking in English now. The government has reacted and implemented programs to keep English instruction in schools.

While I understand the economic benefits of having more English proficient speakers, I think it is great that most people in the Philippines have embraced their native language and that is more prominent than English. There is so much cultural pride tied to one's native language and I find it interesting that English decline is considered a "problem." Instead I think the Philippines should be further pushing Tagalog (or other native dialects) and preserving the cultural heritage that is embedded in the language.

Here's the link to the article: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2010/0510/For-Filipinos-English-proficiency-is-fading

Language Translation Application: Jibbigo

An application for the iPhone 3GS and iPhone Touch 3G called Jibbigo is one of the most popular applications to date which can now translate into Arabic. Arguably one of the smartest applications available, the creators Jibbigo recently released the fourth version which includes an Iraqi dialect of Arabic. The success of this application comes from its simple use and applicability ranging from casual travelers to doctors. Someone can simply speak into their iPhone in either English or another language and shortly a voice translates your words both orally and in a written form. Although not very cheap (the price ranges from $25 to $30), the application has various functions such as translating a road sign; someone can take a picture of the sign with the phone's camera and the application will interpret and translate the meaning of the sign.

Perhaps the most useful ability of this application is the voice-to-voice translation that occurs without the need for Internet connections. This makes the application vital in regions such as war zones in Iraq. The United States military has been giving iPhones to soldiers and officers in order to assist them and help break down language barriers in the Middle East. Jibbigo has further developments in store; originally designed for travelers, it makes mistakes when the translation does not pertain to travel or first aid.

While I think such technologies do serve as a great aid to soldiers and people in general where language barriers may exist, I do not think it should become the future of language. If anything, such technologies should be a temporary fix for the lack of fluency in certain languages. However in the long run, I hope these developments will not discourage people from actually learning languages themselves and simply relying on a device to do rudimentary translations for them. There are so many aspects of culture, history, and customs that are embedded within language and even the most advanced non-human translators cannot capture all of that.

Here's the article: http://www.networkworld.com/news/2010/050710-language-translation-app-jibbigo-goes.html?page=1

Arabic and French in Mauritania, Africa

Recently in Mauritania, Africa students at the University of Nouakchott violently clashed over language policy, leaving many students severely wounded. This behavior arose when the Prime Minister, Moulaye Ould Mohammed Lagdaff, made an announcement over the status of Arabic language in the country which provoked the uproar across campus between students. During a celebration of the Arabic language, the Prime Minister mentioned that the country would begin implementation of compulsory Arabic programs as the only official "lingua franca" or working language that people use regularly to communicate. This sparked tensions between two groups of students: Arabo-Berbers who have Arab descent and Negro-Mauritanians who have African descent. The Prime Minister's statement fueled ancestral quarrels about language that started with heated debates and soon turned into violence that had to be stopped by police and tear gas.

The history behind these two ethnic groups and their respective attitudes towards French and Arabic play a monumental role in how people view the situation. A Negro-Mauritanian students reported that they do not want to "inherit cultural oppression and linguistic humiliation" similar to their ancestors faced. On the other side, an Arabo-Berber student pointed out that the country's Constitution only recognizes Arabic as the official language and sees those that clamor for the coexistence of French and Arabic as "agents of imperialism." The current debate, fueled by cultural and linguistic identities, highlights a long struggle for power and control within the country between these two communities. Looking further into Mauritania in general, I found that the country has only recently outlawed slavery (within the past few years) and the civilian government of Mauritania was overthrown in 2008 by a military coup d'etat. On top of that, it is amongst the most poverty stricken countries in Africa with about 20% of the population living on less that $1.25 U.S. a day. I think these amongst other cultural and historic factors have influenced the current situation and attitudes within the country. The circumstances in Mauritania illustrate the immense cultural pride and ties that people can grow to associate with a language and its real world implications.

Here's a link to the article: http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20100424181813316

Sign Language Study

Findings from a new study done at the University of Rochester show that there does not exist a lone area of the human brain "that gives it language capacities above and beyond those of any other animal species." The team working on this consisted of both brain and cognitive scientists at the University and they came to this conclusion by analyzing if different human brain regions are used to decipher sentences with varying types of grammar. The reason for choosing American Sign Language for the study is because of the language's versatility with grammar. English for example relies on word order within a sentence to convey the meaning and relationships between the elements of the sentence. Spanish on the other hand depends on inflections and suffixes (me, te, se) in order to portray subject-object relationships and the order of words in sentences are often interchangeable. American Sign Language has both of these qualities of word order and inflection to show meaning. The signer can use word order or choose to "use physical inflections such as moving hands through space or signing on one side of the body to convey the relationship."

The experiment used native signers and had them watch videos of recorded sentences. Half of the group watched sentences that utilized word order and the other half used inflection. Native signers were hooked up to an MRI to monitor brain activation when processing different types of sentences. The results of the study show that there are"distinct regions of the brain that are used to process the two types of sentences." Our understanding of grammar draws upon different brain regions; for example "a word order sentence draws on parts of the front cortex that give humans the ability to put information into sequences, while an inflectional sentence draws on parts of the temporal lobe that specialize in diving information into its constituent parts." This dispels any belief that humans' language capacities are derived from some special region of the brain that has developed and does only language and nothing else; instead, humans use and adapt the capabilities of our brain that are already present.

Not only does this provide more evidence for the possibilities of how language abilities might have evolved in humans, but it could also be useful for medicine. According to Elissa Newport, this could be valuable in assessing how to best teach language to people with brain damage in specific areas such as a stroke victim. This also provides cognitive empirical evidence of the legitimacy of American Sign Language as a distinct language. As discussed previously in class, there has been debate over whether or not American Sign Language (or sign languages in general) are considered to be distinctive languages that are on par with other languages such as Spanish or English. Activating different brain regions proves that processing and understanding American Sign Language mimics that of understanding a spoken language and the lack of speech does not undermine the language.

here's the article: http://www.rochester.edu/news/show.php?id=3610

1st paragraph of the Bible

English:

(1)In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. (2) Now
the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the
deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. (3) And God
said, "Let there be light," and there was light. (4) God saw that the
light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. (5) God
called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." And there
was evening, and there was morning-the first day.

Spanish:

(1) En el principio, Dios creó el cielo y la tierra. (2) Ahora la tierra no tenía forma y estaba vacio, la oscuridad estaba sobre la superficie del océano, y el espiritu de Dios estaba rondando sobre los mares. (3) Y Dios dijo, 'permite la luz existir' y haya luz. (4) Dios vio que la luz estaba bueno y separó la luz de la oscuridad. (5) Dios nombró la luz, "el dia," y nombró la oscuridad "la noche." Y haya noche y haya mañana el primero dia.

It was interesting to have to translate something so common as the beginning of the bible. I found myself having to contemplate how to best translate something and trying not to lose the intended of the English version. Such conflicts arose such as the earth being formless in English and yet in Spanish I described the earth has not having form. I had to change the adjective in English into something more active for the Spanish version. Another word was the "deep" in English which is relatively ambiguous even in English. I interpreted that as the depths of the ocean and thus translated that. Another interesting translation was the "let there be light." One of the most famous lines, it cannot quite translate directly and I chose instead to say "allow light to exist." For the most part, the main message can still be conveyed through this translation; however, this small exercise alone shows how representing complex ideas in different languages can become tricky.

Coma Victim's Language Ability

A recent breaking news story has been floating around the media about a Croatian girl who awakened from a coma with a change in language abilities. Prior to falling comatose, she had been learning German and after 24 hours in a coma, she woke up speaking only in German and not her native tongue Croatian.

Reading another article about this, the initial stories claimed that the 13 year girl woke up speaking fluent German. This however proved to be exaggerated and in fact her level of fluency could not have increased as a result of her coma. Findings did prove the claim that the girl was unable to speak her native language afterwards. This is a condition called bilingual aphasia in which damage to a part of the brain causes a person to lose capabilities with one of their two languages. Such a condition is possible because different regions of the brain are involved in remembering each of the two languages; this girl must have received an injury to the sections of her brain that were used for Croatian and resulted in her ability to only speak German.

This case proved that a lot of information remains undiscovered about language and the role the brain plays in language learning. It is known that different types of memory are involved in learning first and second languages but the point at which someone reaches a level of fluency for it to move from declarative to non-declarative memory remains unknown. Understanding how the brain manages multiples languages is still a relatively new task for cognitive psychologists and neurologists and learning how injuries to certain brain regions could affect the individual remains to be discovered.

I think this brings up the importance of biological factors in relation to language. The brain plays a major role in how we communicate with the world and how we are able to learn new languages. Further research into this topic could help us come up with better methods for learning multiple languages which can be extremely useful for people our globalized world.

The article can be found here: http://news.discovery.com/human/coma-croatian-girl-german.html

Overcoming Language Deficits

Children born with autism often have problems with language production. A recent study however shows that this barrier can be broken down through the use of music.

An article from the Boston Globe recounted the tale of two parents and the moment they realized their son was autistic. Even with therapy, he was unable to speak and had not done so since the age of 2. When he turned 8 years old, his parents decided to try out an experimental program that coaxes speech through the use of movement, singing, and imitation. While his speech would not seem very impressive to us (all done being said as "all-duh"), such little instances of speech production gratified his parents immensely.

This therapy is based on theories that music can engage and strengthen the auditory and motor regions on the right side of the brain. "The combination of sound and movement can activate a network of brain regions that overlap with brain areas thought to be abnormal in children with autism. Researchers think the intensive, repetitive training on sound paired with motion will help strengthen those abnormal areas."

Enabling someone previously limited in their capacity to speak at all, to actually create words and phrase shows the development of research into both language and medicine. I am curious as to the implications of such research; will people with language deficiencies soon be able to interact and function in the world similarly to everyone else?

article link: http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/04/22/when_language_is_blocked_music_may_offer_detour/

Reviving a dead language

It is well known that the English language has been imperialistic throughout history and often the goal of assimilation caused certain languages to become extinct within a generation or two. One such language that suffered from this radical attack is Dena'ina which used to be the language of native peoples living in Alaska. Students at the University of Alaska Anchorage have been studying the Kenai dialect of Dena'ina and because the last Kenia dialect speaker died years ago, they are forced to use dictionaries and grammar derived from linguists which the professor described as "harder than differential calculus."

Despite the difficulty, the students and those working to revitalize the language remain determined. They want to rectify a wrong perpetuated by the United States government during the beginning of the 20th century in which children had their mouths washed out with soap or faced corporal punishment for speaking their native tongue. Unfortunately these efforts to help assimilation resulted in the decimation of languages within a couple generations. Not only were the words and syntax lost, but the thought patterns embedded in the grammar of these languages were destroyed. "For example, Dena'ina has a grammatical construct for causation; a Dena'ina speaker subconsciously inserts a barred-l sound (not in English) at a certain place in the verb to mean, "cause it to happen. Thus every Dena'ina speaker would intuitively understand the veracity of causation."

As discussed in class, a common and useful way for people to revive languages is not only its reconstruction but finding ways to get young people to use the language. For now, the Alaska Native Language Center is putting forth strong efforts to put together the broken pieces of the language Dena'ina. Whether or not the language will become widely used once the pieces are put together remains to be seen.

Here's the link to the article: http://www.adn.com/2010/04/16/1229502/as-languages-die-we-lose-diversity.html

Body Language

When someone mentions language, often the first thing to come to mind is verbal or written languages. One of the incredible creations of both humans and animals is non-verbal communication. Body language allows us to interpret a great amount of information from a person without ever having spoken a single word.

A recent article in Psychology Today addressed the need for children to be taught about body language. Joe Navarro, the author of "What Every Body is Saying" was approached by many parents and asked how they should go about telling their children about body language and at what age they should start. He calls body language our "primary means of communication" and believes "it is every parent's responsibility to socialize their children" which includes teaching them about body language. He gives a list of ten things parents can do starting at about the age of two, including lessons such as the meaning of all nonverbal communication, the power of body language to communicate emotions, and the usefulness of learning to read the body language of others.

I do agree that body language plays unique role in our lives. It explains why we often do not even have to speak the same language as someone else and yet still comprehend one another. Body language differs throughout different regions or countries but it remains a universal means of relating to one another without speech. It can help you in situations to read the emotions of those around you; whether it is something small such as your interactions with a girlfriend/boyfriend or something more substantial like a job interview.

Looking further into the importance of body language, I found an article in which reading body language becomes crucial to one's safety. As mentioned earlier, animals also make use of body language and failure to read a dog's body language resulted in a life threatening situation for a young boy. Specifically referring to dog bites, "experts say an animal's body language speaks volumes, and most bites occur because people can't interpret their pets' postures and signals." In these circumstances, it would be vital for a child to understand body language because an animal (either pet or in the wild) may portray warning signs of aggression. Misunderstandings like this can occur with two human beings as well. A "dirty" look or the middle finger can often spark arguments and fights. Our communication with other beings in the world are not limited to written or vocal interactions and we should not overlook the role body language plays in our lives.

President of Poland

I was not quite sure how to save the online files as a pdf, so I'm posting the links to the newspaper reports on the event:

Wall Street Journal (English) - "Poland Mourns After President Is Killed In Plane Crash"

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304168004575177203537027616.html?mod=WSJ_hpp_LEFTTopStories

Washington Post (English) - "Poland mourns death of president, other top officials in plane crash"

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/11/AR2010041100863.html

LA Times (English) - "For Poland, plane crash in Russia rips open old wounds"

http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/asia/la-fg-polish-president-crash11-2010apr11,0,4409138.story?track=rss

NY Times (English) - "Poland Mourns President, Elite Killed In Crash"

http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2010/04/11/world/international-uk-poland-president-crash.html

USA Today (English) - "President's body returned to Poland after crash killed 96"

http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2010-04-10-polish-president-killed_N.htm?loc=interstitialskip

Language changes over time

As we have discussed in class, one of the most powerful and crucial cognitive faculties to humans is language. We know that new languages develop while others gradually die out but sometimes we forget that each individual language itself goes through an immeasurable number of phases and changes. The article "Liquid Language" discusses this topic in specific regard to English as a very fluid and constantly evolving language. The author pointed out some interesting points about relatively modern changes in English. There will always be a generational gap and the language of young people usually has many differences with that of a parent or grandparent. For example, "cool" and "awesome" being used as adjectives for "good" are relatively new additions. The author also mentioned that some academics believe the Bible should be translated every 25 years because they believe language morphs that quickly.

Politics and societal values are also reflected in the words we use. Men is no longer acceptable when referring to both genders; after the Feminist movement, women and men should be indicated by saying people. Other distinctions that may have mattered to older generations such as when to use "fewer" or "less" and the difference between "lie" and "lay". Language has remained incredibly flexible and people constantly find new methods of communication.

Looking further into this idea that languages do not stay the same, I was curious about any theories of language simply decaying or remaining stagnant. As Professor Boroditsky mentioned, there are instances in which imperialism wipes out languages in a single generation. However aside from extreme cases such as this, there is not much evidence for instantaneous decay of language. As stated by the author of this website: http://www.ancientscripts.com/hl_why.html, "anything that can be expressed in the ancient tongue can still be expressed today". American linguist William Labov proposed that languages actually bond socially over time. He advocated that a small portion of the population pronounces certain words differently or uses different words and eventually others want to identify with that group or enjoy the newly formed methods for communication and adopt it.. This has happened in many fields, especially with computer and technology related words such as email which were used originally by a small group and are almost universal now.

Here's the first article I read: http://www.dunnvillechronicle.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=2522931

English as a secondary language in Miami

Recent reports show that Spanish is becoming the more predominant language in Miami, Florida and if the trend continues, English will be spoken by less than half of the city's population. Reading this article from MSNBC titled "In Miami, Spanish becoming primary language", the demographics show that the dense and ever increasing Hispanic population is making Spanish more than just a major language, the language is actually spoken much more than English. Miami has consistently attracted immigrants from Cuba and other Latin American countries. It is not surprising that Spanish has taken over a vast majority of the city.

This article does not see this as just a natural trend but as something that is negative and responsible for making English speakers feel marginalized. A woman who owns a flower shop in the city reports that her inability to speak Spanish hinders her ability to conduct business. Other Miami residents that do not speak Spanish tell how it has hurt their chances of finding a job or even something as simple as asking for directions. As a result, the white population has gradually been leaving the city and moving north where they feel more comfortable.

Spanish has assumed the role as the dominant language in this city and it is interesting to see this reversal of what is commonly seen in American cities. We are used to immigrants learning English and assimilating to the culture; however in this case, the immigrants are maintaining their culture and Americans are the ones who have to adapt in order to prosper economically. Americans' attitudes towards this trend was also very stereotypical because they feel offended that immigrants have the audacity to arrive here and have a greater advantage because their native language trumps English.

Another article on the topic had a similar viewpoint that immigrants in Miami should learn English. As brought up in class yesterday, there is no official language of the United States and I think that people should be able to speak whichever language allows them to function in society. Coming from Sacramento, the city has experienced similar trends with immigration and increased usage of other languages. English is the top language spoken in the city, but there are various street signs, billboards, and stores throughout the city that are in Spanish, Russian, Hmong, Mandarin, or a number of other languages. I also found it interesting that the white population has started a gradual migration out of Miami because a similar trend has been occurring in Sacramento; one of my teacher's called it "white flight." Within the past few decades, many new cities (Elk Grove, El Dorado Hills, Natomas, Carmichael, etc) have popped up with a very dense white population while Sacramento continues to grow in diversity. It would be interesting to see if language would also begin to travel with the immigrants and shift the dominance of English in my hometown as well.

Here's the first article: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24871558/#storyContinued

and the second: http://news.gather.com/viewArticle.action?articleId=281474978158689

Dual language classes

Learning more than one language is an ever increasing topic of interest for many people. Parents are especially concerned with their children's language abilities and how that could affect their future prospects. With college and career options becoming more competitive every day, every parent wants to give their child any extra skills possible to better ensure their success in the world. While the effects continue to be debated, bilingual education is a relatively modern idea (at least in the United States) that is being implemented across the country. The article "Dual language classes on the way" show how this educational reform is currently taking place in Modesto.

Being born and raised in Sacramento, I was particularly interested that such a program is happening in the local area. I have heard of such programs but always thought they only occurred in elite private schools on the east coast or the extremely affluent areas of Southern California. It is also interesting to note that this is starting in the midst of the economic troubles throughout the country and especially in the state. CA schools have undergone massive budget cuts during many of my years and yet the situation has no obvious solution in the near future. The article explained that the Modesto and other local schools districts who are starting these programs already have bilingual teachers who can instruct in both Spanish and English. Since these teachers do not require further training, there is less of a financial burden. Students that participate in these programs will begin bilingual education in kindergarten and continue onward instead of the typical language classes that begin in middle or high school. There will also be instruction on the basic subjects (math, social studies, etc) in both languages so that students become comfortable utilizing the language in multiple academic areas.

I think this program is a fantastic idea that should have been implemented a long time ago. Already teachers report that students who learn English as a second language are helping the native English speakers and vice versa. This way the students develop a sense of confidence in the language from a very early age and the combination of ESL students in the classes breaks down the alienation that often comes with learning English as a second language. By the time these students reach high school, they will already wield a diverse vocabulary and better understanding of cultural diversity. Bilingual education in this way can establish more acceptance and appreciation of other cultures and languages; if young people learn such values during their primary education, then they will carry that with them to college and their future lives.

The sad part is the money issue. Many schools, especially in California, do not have the resources to employ well qualified instructors and provide the necessary materials for such a program. It will take a long time for widespread bilingual education to become the norm of education policy. Hopefully the success of such programs that exist already will inspire future legislation for education reform that will push for bilingual education.

Here's a link to the article: http://www.modbee.com/2010/04/05/1115018/dual-language-classes-on-the-way.html

1. English is my first language and the language with which I have the highest fluency. Spanish is my second language and I am able to speak it fairly well after having studied the language for over 5 years and learning random words or phrases as a child from my extended family. I have recently been interested in learning Tagalog and practice words with friends who can speak Tagalog.

My experience with language stems from an issue with cultural identity. My mother is Mexican but does not know how to speak Spanish because her parents never taught her the language. My grandparents suffered from language barriers during their early years in school and the difficulty they faced with learning English as a second language influenced how they chose to raise their children (my mother and aunts). Aside from their own troubles caused by learning Spanish first, they believed that we were Americans now and the language of America is English; consequently, they decided not to teach my mother or her sisters Spanish which resulted in my mother's inability to teach me. This caused many issues of cultural identity as I grew up. Born half Black and half Mexican, I had to figure out how to negotiate my existence as a part of both groups and yet not completely belonging to either. I figured that by learning the language, I would be able to resolve that cultural disconnect and gain a sense of genuine acceptance as Mexican. However, the Spanish that I have learned is almost like a different language than Spanish spoken casually or within the home. When speaking, other native speakers are able to notice that I was taught "academic" Spanish or "book" Spanish. As a result, I would sometimes be categorized as "one of those" or not a "true Mexican."

I became interested in taking this class because language has always been something that has intrigued me. I am interested in Social & Cultural Psychology and studying the role of language in society seems fascinating. There are many ways in which language shapes the way people think and what they think about others; I have personally experienced some ways in which language can divide or be inclusive. I would like to look further into the function of language in cultures and social contexts.

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